The Development of American Colonies Essay Example for Free

The Development of American Colonies Essay Since the discovery of the New World by European powers, the newly established European settlements on American soil varied from region to region. Two such regions were The Chesapeake and The New England regions. Although both were settled vastly by the English people the societies they formed were different. These differences were due to a few factors. The factors include motivation for migration, geography, social, political and economical structures of the settlements. These factors are what contributed to the variations seen in the societies formed by settlers of distinct regions. In the 1600s life in Great Britain was no too pleasant for certain groups of people. The farming population of England was pushed off their land by landlords who began enclosing areas for pasture of animals such as sheep needed to maintain the increasing woolen industry of England. The landless farmers swarmed into cities such as London and Bristol. The cities became overpopulated and unemployment rates soared. People were desperate for jobs. In the 1600s a system called primogeniture was practiced in England. The system ensured that all inheritance went to the oldest son in the family. Younger sons of aristocratic families were left without inheritance where eager to find prosperity of their own. Such people looking for profit decided to try their luck in the New World. The motivation of these people was mostly personal profit. For those of elite origin escaping primogeniture was also a motivation. Another motive which stimulated these courageous people was finding a better route to the Indies which a few competing European powers were also seeking. The leadership was provided by a popular monarch Queen Elizabeth, and the financing by Virginia Joint Stock Company. In 1607 a group of Englishmen set out and settled James Town which became a colony in the Chesapeake region. The first band of settlers was all males, although later shipments of people did include a small fraction of women. This trend could be seen in Document C which contains a list of passengers headed for Virginia in 1635.The passage to the New World was rough and people died in its pursuit. The geography in the Chesapeake region was different from that in England. The hot climate provided for diseases such as malaria to which the English people were not immune. These diseases  killed off many of the colonists. The soil was fertile; the woods full of game and fish was present in the ocean. Yet many of the emigrating men were gentlemen who were not accustomed to work and therefore did not know how to take advantage of these resources. Other colonists spent time searching for gold instead of focusing on survival and the starving time came into being. The colonists died in large numbers of malnutrition and starvation and disease. The colony survived due to the leadership provided by Capitan John Smith. His theory of Those who shall not work shall not eat caused some discipline within the men. As stated in Document F by Captain John Smith the colonists faced hard times. They died of cold and hunger. Captain Smith explained in the document that getting colonists to work was troublesome. Those who hunted gold got others involved and the men wasted time instead of gathering food. Capitan Smith realizing such starvation sent out a ship to summon supplies for the next year. The two councilor that were present in the colony to maintain law and order made friends with the sailors and wanted to sail back to England thus causing Smith trouble to prevent such from happening. Such unruly colonists owed a large part of their survival to Capitan Smith. He made relation with the local Indians and their leader Powhatans aided the colonists in obtaining food. When another shipment of people arrived amongst them was leader Lord de la Warr. He held a harsh military rule and made trouble with the local Indians whom the colonists raided for food. A war was started yet peace came to be when colonists by the name of John Rolfe married the Powhatan princess named Pocahontas. The economy of the colonies improved when John Rolfe perfected tobacco growing. Tobacco was a profitable crop yet it required labor and vast areas of land to grow it upon. Tobacco exhausted soil and the English were forced to press upon Indian Territory to find more land for Tobacco growing. These actions caused Indians to rebel. Another series of Anglo- Powhatans wars was launched and a large number of colonists killed including John Rolfe.  Yet the English won and the peace settlement required the Indians to be uprooted and moved away form the white settlements. These were the origins of reservation systems which later came into being. Tobacco being a profitable crop, plantation system was developed for its growth. Such plantations required labor and the use of the Headright came into being. The system included the use of people called indentured servants. Indentured servants singed contracts and volunteered their labor as slaves for a set number of years in return for passage fair to the New World provided by their master. They were further promised their freedom dues which included a small piece of land, clothing, and a few barrels of corn upon the termination of their indenture. The indentured servants were promised much yet the promises were not always kept. The land they were given was on Indian Territory and caused Indian attacks. Further the land was second rate and not much crops could be grown on such land. The indentures thus faced poverty at the end of their indenture. These conditions caused the indentures to rebel. Bacons rebellion occurred in 1653 and consisted of angry indentures rebelling against the rich land owners who were backed by Governor Berkley or the area. Ideas of the rebellion are vividly described in Document H which explains how wealth was unjustly and unevenly distributed among the landowning population leaving the others including freed indentures to poverty. Another colony in the Chesapeake region was Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore as a haven for Catholics. The economy of the colony also largely depended on the growth and exportation of tobacco and thus also needed labor The Chesapeake region which had connections to the Caribbean saw the black slavery that occurred there and adopted it for the work on plantation. African servants were easier to maintain and control with the use of the Adopted Barbados slave codes. Virginia colony set up a form of government called the House of Burgesses which was a small parliament which governed the colony. Yet the southern colonies were surrounded by enemies of other nations such as the Dutch and  the Spanish in Florida. Government was not always able to defend the colony form such invaders. As Stated in Document G where Governor Berkley explained the colonial inability to defend itself form the Dutch which whom they were forced to share the continent. These attacks of foreigners had to be curbed and controlled by Virginias government. Societies were hard to form in the Chesapeake colonies. The areas were spread out and the establishment of schools and churches was difficult. There was still a shortage of females present in the region. Thus a large number of men could not find a wife and start a family. The few unstable families reproduced slowly compared with the New England Colonies. High mortality rate of men enabled women to have power and inherit their husbands property to support themselves and their children upon becoming a widow. Such were the factors that formed the societies in the Chesapeake colonies. English puritan separatist who believed the Anglican Church was corrupt suffered much prejudice for their religious beliefs. They moved to Holland where they became increasingly aware of the Dutchification of their children, their loss of English language and customs and adoption of Dutch culture. These people wanted a place where they could freely practice their religion while remaining fully English in speech and culture and traditions. Puritans secured a charter form the Virginia Joint Stock company and were supposed to land in James town, yet they sailed off coast and landed in Plymouth. The motivation of these people included mostly religious purposes and the worry of the Dutchification of their children. They thus came in families to settle and stay. These puritans strongly believed in hard work and survival. Only one person died on their passage over. As the list of passengers bound for New England is examined in Document B a trend of women men and children coming as families could be seen. Among the religious motives of the Puritans was the idea of building a perfect holy society that would be an example to all others. Jonathan Winthrop, the founder of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Expressed his desire to build a holy city on a hill blessed by god in Document A. Geography was another factor which influenced the development of the  colonies. New England soil was rocky therefore the families did small subsistence farming in contrast to the export economy sustained in the south. The New England region had access to the ocean therefore fishing and whaling was pursued. The woody region contributed to, much of the lumber used in shipbuilding. The local Indians of the region seemed to be previously wiped out by an epidemic leaving shelters and cleared fields for European settlements. The Wampanoag tribe in the settlement helped the puritans survive by introducing corn and other to them. The colony thus celebrated their first Thanksgiving Day with the Harvest brought about in the fall. The Governmental structure of the colonies was set up before the puritans left the ship to settle New England. The Mayflower Compact was drawn on the ship and was an agreement signed by the male passengers to form a self governing body ruled by majority in the settlements which they were about to established. As could be seen in Document D the Mayflower compact was the first form of the colonies agreement toward the common goal of survival. The government later set up in the colonies was a theocracy. The church was supported by a state tax yet the clergy officials were not able to hold office. Town meetings were administered in which decisions were made by a vote of majority. An assembly called the General Court was elected by free adult puritan males. The General Court made the decisions such as tax and wage regulations in the colonies. In Document E could be examined to see how the General Court assembly controlled prices and wages. Document E is a good example how theocratic even the General Court was often referring to god to prove their point or justify a cause. Outcasts were removed by the government such as minister Roger Williams. Roger Williams was and extreme puritan separatist believed that the puritan church established in the new world further needed reform. He thought that He believed that the Indians of the region were mistreated and deserved better land. Roger Williams was expelled from Massachusetts Bay colony and went further to est. the Rhode Island colony which offered complete religious freedom, no tax supported church and sheltered outcasts such as Anne Hutchinson. Anne Hutchinson also went to defy the puritan theology  claiming that there was no predestination a belief cherished by the puritans. She was exiled and sent to the Rhode Island colony. The economy of the colonies rested largely upon shipbuilding for the British army. Production of products such as tar and rosin were valued by the English navy and were paid well for. Bostons geographical location on a seaport made it a center of trade and commerce, which was a profitable position. Colonies like Rhode Island which often half slave auctions profited from such occurrences. Fishing and export of codfish also sustained the economics of the colonies. Finally the social structure of the New England colonies was different from the southern Chesapeake colonies. The New Englanders formed towns and communities. Education was important many of the colonists had to be literate in order to read the bible. Institutions such as Harvard University were established to train young men for clergy. The families in New England were stable and fertile. They reproduced well and the population grew. As the population grew other colonies such as Connecticut Valley and New Haven colonies were added to the New England region. These colonies were similar expect for Rhode Island colony and later established Quaker Pennsylvania. The Massachusetts colonies even formed a confederation called the New England Confederation with the Connecticut colonies whose purpose was to protect the colonies and was ruled by a voting majority of representatives. In conclusion the variations in geographical, economical, social, political, and motivational factors contributed to the diverse societies formed by people of common English origin. These factors affected the largely the mentality and the way of life of the people residing in these New England and the Chesapeake regions. The differences in the aspects of society mentioned above are what gave the colonies of different regions their distinct characteristics. Bibliography: Bailey, Thomas, and David Kennedy. The American Pageant. 10th. Lexington Massachusetts: D.C. Health and company, 1994.

Roman and Byzantine Essay Example for Free

Roman and Byzantine Essay Between 200 B.C.E. and 1100 C.E. some aspects of cultural and political life changed between the Roman and Byzantine Empire while, other aspects continued. The aspects that continued politically are strong centralized political system, with an emperor overseeing. The aspects that changed politically are the way provinces of the empire were ruled. The aspects that continued culturally are the wealth, trade dependence, and pride. The aspects that changed are the religion, language, and military defense. Political aspects continued between the Roman and Byzantine Empire. The aspects that continued are the bureaucratic government and centralized political system with the emperor ruling everything. The Romans started this slightly during the reign of Julius Caesar, Caesar became a dictator and started this type of government in 47 B.C.E. after he was assassinated by his enemies. Julius’s grand-nephew Octavian Caesar rose up, defeated Julius’s enemies, and took over as the first emperor of Rome, renaming himself Augustus Caesar in 27 B.C.E. Augustus continued the type of government his uncle started where he as the emperor oversees all social, political, economic, religious, and military. The Byzantines took this cue from their predecessor and continued it by having such great emperors such as Justinian (527-656 C.E.) or Constantine (306-337 C.E.) who oversaw the whole Byzantine Empire and made decisions that allowed the empire to prosper. Another political aspect the Romans’ started was the standard of law which was continued by the Byzantines. Although the Byzantine Empire continued these political aspects of the Roman Empire, they changed some aspects.

Time dilation and length contraction

Time dilation and length contraction INTRODUCTION: Time dilation is a phenomenon (or two phenomena, as mentioned below) described by the theory of relativity. It can be illustrated by supposing that two observers are in motion relative to each other, and/or differently situated with regard to nearby gravitational masses. Length contraction, according to Hendrik Lorentz, is the physical phenomenon of a decrease in length detected by an observer in objects that travel at any non-zero velocity relative to that observer. This contraction (more formally called Lorentz contraction or Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction) is usually only noticeable, however, at a substantial fraction of the speed of light; and the contraction is only in the direction parallel to the direction in which the observed body is travelling. SPECIAL RELATIVITY : When such quantities as length, time interval and mass are considered in elementary physics, no special point is made about how they are measured This theory has a wide range of consequences which have been experimentally verified, including counter-intuitive ones such as length contraction, time dilation and relativity of simultaneity, contradicting the classical notion that the duration of the time interval between two events is equal for all observers. (On the other hand, it introduces the space-time interval, which is invariant.) Combined with other laws of physics, the two postulates of special relativity predict the equivalence of matter and energy, as expressed in the mass-energy equivalence formula E=mc2, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum.The predictions of special relativity agree well with Newtonian mechanics in their common realm of applicability, specifically in experiments in which all velocities are small compared with the speed of light. Special relativity reve als that c is not just the velocity of a certain phenomenon-namely the propagation of electromagnetic radiation (light)-but rather a fundamental feature of the way space and time are unified as space time. One of the consequences of the theory is that it is impossible for any particle that has rest mass to be accelerated to the speed of light. POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: TWO postulates are as follows : The law of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frame of reference. OVERVIEW OF TIME DILATION : Time dilation can arise from (1) relative velocity of motion between the observers, and (2) difference in their distance from gravitational mass. In the case that the observers are in relative uniform motion, and far away from any gravitational mass, the point of view of each will be that the others (moving) clock is ticking at a slower rate than the local clock. The faster the relative velocity, the more is the rate of time dilation. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time dilation. It is often interpreted as time slowing down for the other (moving) clock. But that is only true from the physical point of view of the local observer, and of others at relative rest (i.e. in the local observers frame of reference). The point of view of the other observer will be that again the local clock (this time the other clock) is correct, and it is the distant moving one that is slow. From a local perspective, time registered by clocks that are at rest with respect to the local frame of reference (and far from any gravitational mass) always appears to pass at the same rate. There is another case of time dilation, where both observers are differently situated in their distance from a significant gravitational mass, such as (for terrestrial observers) the Earth or the Sun. One may suppose for simplicity that the observers are at relative rest (which is not the case of two observers both rotating with the Earth an extra factor described below). In the simplified case, the general theory of relativity describes how, for both observers, the clock that is closer to the gravitational mass, i.e. deeper in its gravity well, appears to go slower than the clock that is more distant from the mass (or higher in altitude away from the center of the gravitational mass). That does not mean that the two observers fully agree: each still makes the local clock to be correct; the observer more distant from the mass (higher in altitude) makes the other clock (closer to the mass, lower in altitude) to be slower than the local correct rate, and the observer situated closer t o the mass (lower in altitude) makes the other clock (farther from the mass, higher in altitude) to be faster than the local correct rate. They agree at least that the clock nearer the mass is slower in rate, and on the ratio of the difference. This is gravitational time dilation. FORMULAE OF TIME DILATION AND LENGTH CONTRACTION: TIME DILATION: t0 is the proper time between events A and B for a slow-ticking observer within the gravitational field, tf is the coordinate time between events A and B for a fast-ticking observer at an arbitrarily large distance from the massive object (this assumes the fast-ticking observer is using Schwarzschild coordinates, a coordinate system where a clock at infinite distance from the massive sphere would tick at one second per second of coordinate time, while closer clocks would tick at less than that rate), G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field, r is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate), c is the speed of light, and r0 = 2GM / c2 is the called the Schwarzschild Radius of M. If a mass collapses so that its surface lies at less than this radial coordinate (or in other words covers an area of less than 4pG2M2 / c4), then the object exists within a black hole. LENGTH CONTRACTION: This effect is negligible at everyday speeds, and can be ignored for all regular purposes. It is only when an object approaches greater speeds, that it becomes important. At a speed of 13,400,000 m/s, the length is 99.9% of the length at rest and at a speed of 42,300,000 m/s still 99%. As the magnitude of the velocity approaches the speed of light, the effect becomes dominant, as can be seen from the formula: Note that in this equation it is assumed that the object is parallel with its line of movement. Also note that for the observer in relative movement, the length of the object is measured by subtracting the simultaneously measured distances of both ends of the object. For more general conversions, see the Lorentz transformations. AN EXAMPLE OF TIME DILATION: A spaceship is flying a distance of 5lighthours, for example from Earth to the dwarf planet which Earth and Pluto are motionless. Formula used : t.. time indicated by the spaceship clock t.. time indicated by the clocks of the Earth-Pluto-system v.. speed of the spacecraft relatively to the system of Earth and Pluto c.. speed of light REMARKS: In a simplifying way there was assumed an inertial system in which Earth and Pluto are motionless; especially the motion around the Sun was neglected. According to an important result of the theory of relativity, an observer in the Earth-Pluto-system would see the spacecraft shortened in the direction of motion. This so-called Lorentz contraction was not taken into consideration in order to make it possible to read off the spaceships clock. BASIS IN RELATIVITY: The origin of length contraction in the special theory of relativity can be traced to the operational definitions of simultaneity and length.According to Milne and Bondi the following operational definitions are assigned to simultaneity and length: an observer moving uniformly along a straight line sends out a light signal at time t0 to a distant point (stationary according to the observer), where it arrives and is immediately reflected at time tr, arriving back at the observer at time ta. What time does the observer ascribe to the time of reflection tr, or, what event is simultaneous with the reflection? Let l be the distance to the point of reflection. An observer, with his or her definition of c,says it takes time l / c for light to reach the reflector. Because light travels at the same speed c in both directions, it takes the same time both ways, so it returns to the observer at time ta = t0 + 2 l / c, or in other words, the distance to the point of reflection is l = c ( ta t0 ) / 2, and the time at which reflection occurred is simultaneous with the clock registering ( t0 + ta ) / 2. With these operational definitions for determining length and simultaneous events, two observers in constant relative motion at velocity v are considered, and their time and length scales compared. The result of the above definitions is that time and length are connected by the Lorentz factor ?: PHYSICAL ORIGIN OF LENGTH CONTRACTION: Length contraction as a physical effect on bodies composed of atoms held together by electromagnetic forces was proposed independently by George FitzGeraldand by Hendrik Lorentz . The following quote from Joseph Larmor is indicative of the pre-relativity view of the effect as a consequence of James Clerk Maxwells electromagnetic theory: if the internal forces of a material system arise wholly from electromagnetic actions between the system of electrons which constitute the atoms, then the effect of imparting to a steady material system a uniform velocity of translation is to produce a uniform contraction of the system in the direction of motion, of amount (1-v2/c2)1/2 The extension of this specific result to a general result was (and is) considered ad hoc by many who prefer Einsteins deduction of it from the Principle of Relativity without reference to any physics.In other words, length contraction is an inevitable consequence of the postulates of special relativity. To gain a little physical insight on why length contractions occur, consider what those postulates involve: by requiring the speed of light (a quantity dependent on the fundamental properties of space and time) to be invariant in all frames of reference (including ones in motion) one can appreciate that it would require the distortion of the measures of length and time. Apparently Lorentz did not agree to the criticism that his proposal was ad hoc. the interpretation given by me and FitzGerald was not artificial. It was more so that it was the only possible one, and I added the comment that one arrives at the hypothesis if one extends to other forces what one could already say about the influence of a translation on electrostatic forces. Had I emphasized this more, the hypothesis would have created less of an impression of being invented ad hoc. (emphasis added) The Trouton-Rankine experiment in 1908 showed that length contraction of an object according to one frame, did not cause changes in the resistance of the object in its rest frame. This is in agreement with some current theories at the time (Special Relativity and Lorentz ether theory) but in disagreement with FitzGeralds ideas on length contraction. EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION: Time dilation has been tested a number of times. The routine work carried on in particle accelerators since the 1950s, such as those at CERN, is a continuously running test of the time dilation of special relativity. The specific experiments include: Velocity time dilation tests Ives and Stilwell (1938, 1941), An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock, in two parts. The stated purpose of these experiments was to verify the time dilation effect, predicted by Lamor-Lorentz ether theory, due to motion through the ether using Einsteins suggestion that Doppler effect in canal rays would provide a suitable experiment. These experiments measured the Doppler shift of the radiation emitted from cathode rays, when viewed from directly in front and from directly behind. The high and low frequencies detected were not the classical values predicted. Rossi and Hall (1941) compared the population of cosmic-ray-produced muons at the top of a mountain to that observed at sea level. Although the travel time for the muons from the top of the mountain to the base is several muon half-lives, the muon sample at the base was only moderately reduced. This is explained by the time dilation attributed to their high speed relative to the experimenters. That is to say, the muons were decaying about 10 times slower than if they were at rest with respect to the experimenters. Hasselkamp, Mondry, and Scharmann(1979) measured the Doppler shift from a source moving at right angles to the line of sight (the transverse Doppler shift). The most general relationship between frequencies of the radiation from the moving sources is given by: as deduced by Einstein (1905). For phi = 90^circ(cosphi = 0,) this reduces to fdetected = frest?. Thus there is no transverse Doppler shift, and the lower frequency of the moving source can be attributed to the time dilation effect alone. Gravitational time dilation tests Pound, Rebka in 1959 measured the very slight gravitational red shift in the frequency of light emitted at a lower height, where Earths gravitational field is relatively more intense. The results were within 10% of the predictions of general relativity. Later Pound and Snider (in 1964) derived an even closer result of 1%. This effect is as predicted by gravitational time dilation. Velocity and gravitational time dilation combined-effect tests Hafele and Keating, in 1971, flew caesium atomic clocks east and west around the Earth in commercial airliners, to compare the elapsed time against that of a clock that remained at the US Naval Observatory. Two opposite effects came into play. The clocks were expected to age more quickly (show a larger elapsed time) than the reference clock, since they were in a higher (weaker) gravitational potential for most of the trip (c.f. Pound, Rebka). But also, contrastingly, the moving clocks were expected to age more slowly because of the speed of their travel. The gravitational effect was the larger, and the clocks suffered a net gain in elapsed time. To within experimental error, the net gain was consistent with the difference between the predicted gravitational gain and the predicted velocity time loss. In 2005, the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom reported their limited replication of this experiment. The NPL experiment differed from the original in that the caesium cl ocks were sent on a shorter trip (London-Washington D.C. return), but the clocks were more accurate. The reported results are within 4% of the predictions of relativity. The Global Positioning System can be considered a continuously operating experiment in both special and general relativity. The in-orbit clocks are corrected for both special and general relativistic time dilation effects as described above, so that (as observed from the Earths surface) they run at the same rate as clocks on the surface of the Earth. In addition, but not directly time dilation related, general relativistic correction terms are built into the model of motion that the satellites broadcast to receivers uncorrected, these effects would result in an approximately 7-metre (23ft) oscillation in the pseudo-ranges measured by a receiver over a cycle of 12 hours. Muon lifetime A comparison of muon lifetimes at different speeds is possible. In the laboratory, slow muons are produced, and in the atmosphere very fast moving muons are introduced by cosmic rays. Taking the muon lifetime at rest as the laboratory value of 2.22  µs, the lifetime of a cosmic ray produced muon traveling at 98% of the speed of light is about five times longer, in agreement with observations. In this experiment the clock is the time taken by processes leading to muon decay, and these processes take place in the moving muon at its own clock rate, which is much slower than the laboratory clock. TIME DILATION AND SPACE FLIGHT: Time dilation would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. That is, the ships clock (and according to relativity, any human travelling with it) shows less elapsed time than the clocks of observers on Earth. For sufficiently high speeds the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might correspond to ten years at home. Indeed, a constant 1g acceleration would permit humans to travel as far as light has been able to travel since the big bang (some 13.7 billion light years) in one human lifetime. The space travellers could return to Earth billions of years in the future. A scenario based on this idea was presented in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. A more likely use of this effect would be to enable humans to travel to nearby stars without spending their entire lives aboard the ship. However, any such application of time dilation during Interstellar travel would require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion. Current space flight technology has fundamental theoretical limits based on the practical problem that an increasing amount of energy is required for propulsion as a craft approaches the speed of light. The likelihood of collision with small space debris and other particulate material is another practical limitation. At the velocities presently attained, however, time dilation is not a factor in space travel. Travel to regions of space-time where gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as within the gravitational field of a black hole but outside the event horizon (perhaps on a hyperbolic trajectory exiting the field), could also yield results consistent with present theory. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION: In physics, the Lorentz transformation, named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz, describes how, according to the theory of special relativity, two observers varying measurements of space and time can be converted into each others frames of reference. It reflects the surprising fact that observers moving at different velocities may measure different distances, elapsed times, and even different orderings of events. The Lorentz transformation was originally the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain observed properties of light propagating in what was presumed to be the luminiferous aether; Albert Einstein later reinterpreted the transformation to be a statement about the nature of both space and time, and he independently re-derived the transformation from his postulates of special relativity. The Lorentz transformation supersedes the Galilean transformation of Newtonian physics, which assumes an absolute space and time (see Galilean relativity). According to special relativity, this is only a good approximation at relative speeds much smaller than the speed of light. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION RELATIVISTIC LENGTH CONTRACTION: One of the peculiar aspects of Einsteins theory of special relativity is that the length of objects moving at relativistic speeds undergoes a contraction along the dimension of motion. An observer at rest (relative to the moving object) would observe the moving object to be shorter in length. That is to say, that an object at rest might be measured to be 200 feet long; yet the same object when moving at relativistic speeds relative to the observer/measurer would have a measured length which is less than 200 ft. This phenomenon is not due to actual errors in measurement or faulty observations. The object is actually contracted in length as seen from the stationary reference frame. The amount of contraction of the object is dependent upon the objects speed relative to the observer. Temporal coordinate systems and clock synchronization In Relativity, temporal coordinate systems are set up using a procedure for synchronizing clocks, discussed by Poincarà © (1900) in relation to Lorentzs local time (see relativity of simultaneity). It is now usually called the Einstein synchronization procedure, since it appeared in his 1905 paper. An observer with a clock sends a light signal out at time t1 according to his clock. At a distant event, that light signal is reflected back to, and arrives back to the observer at time t2 according to his clock. Since the light travels the same path at the same rate going both out and back for the observer in this scenario, the coordinate time of the event of the light signal being reflected for the observer tE is tE = (t1 + t2) / 2. In this way, a single observers clock can be used to define temporal coordinates which are good anywhere in the universe. Symmetric time dilation occurs with respect to temporal coordinate systems set up in this manner. It is an effect where another clock is being viewed as running slowly by an observer. Observers do not consider their own clock time to be time-dilated, but may find that it is observed to be time-dilated in another coordinate system. SIMPLE INFERENCE OF TIME DILATION : Time dilation can be inferred from the observed fact of the constancy of the speed of light in all reference frames. This constancy of the speed of light means, counter to intuition, that speeds of material objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear faster by approaching at speed towards the material source that is emitting light. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear slower by receding from the source at speed. From one point of view, it is the implications of this unexpected constancy that take away from constancies expected elsewhere. Consider a simple clock consisting of two mirrors A and B, between which a light pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is L, and the clock ticks once each time it hits a given mirror. In the frame where the clock is at rest (diagram at right), the light pulse traces out a path of length 2L and the period of the clock is 2L divided by the speed of light: From the frame of reference of a moving observer traveling at the speed v (diagram at lower right), the light pulse traces out a longer, angled path. The second postulate of special relativity states that the speed of light is constant in all frames, which implies a lengthening of the period of this clock from the moving observers perspective. That is to say, in a frame moving relative to the clock, the clock appears to be running more slowly. Straightforward application of the Pythagorean theorem leads to the well-known prediction of special relativity: The spacetime geometry of velocity time dilation Time dilation in transverse motion. The green dots and red dots in the animation represent spaceships. The ships of the green fleet have no velocity relative to each other, so for the clocks onboard the individual ships the same amount of time elapses relative to each other, and they can set up a procedure to maintain a synchronized standard fleet time. The ships of the red fleet are moving with a velocity of 0.866 of the speed of light with respect to the green fleet. The blue dots represent pulses of light. One cycle of light-pulses between two green ships takes two seconds of green time, one second for each leg. As seen from the perspective of the reds, the transit time of the light pulses they exchange among each other is one second of red time for each leg. As seen from the perspective of the greens, the red ships cycle of exchanging light pulses travels a diagonal path that is two light-seconds long. (As seen from the green perspective the reds travel 1.73 (sqrt{3}) light-seconds of distance for every two seconds of green time.) One of the red ships emits a light pulse towards the greens every second of red time. These pulses are received by ships of the green fleet with two-second intervals as measured in green time. Not shown in the animation is that all aspects of physics are proportionally involved. The light pulses that are emitted by the reds at a particular frequency as measured in red time are received at a lower frequency as measured by the detectors of the green fleet that measure against green time, and vice versa. The animation cycles between the green perspective and the red perspective, to emphasize the symmetry. As there is no such thing as absolute motion in relativity (as is also the case for Newtonian mechanics), both the green and the red fleet are entitled to consider themselves motionless in their own frame of reference. Again, it is vital to understand that the results of these interactions and calculations reflect the real state of the ships as it emerges from their situation of relative motion. It is not a mere quirk of the method of measurement or communication. The four dimensions of space time In Relativity the world has four dimensions: three space dimensions and one dimension that is not exactly time but related to time. In fact, it is time multiplied by the square root of -1. Say, you move through one space dimension from point A to point B. When you move to another space coordinate, you automatically cause your position on the time coordinate to change, even if you dont notice. This causes time to elapse. Of course, you are always travelling through time, but when you travel through space you travel through time by less than you expect. Consider the following example: Time dilation; the twin paradox There are two twin brothers. On their thirtieth birthday, one of the brothers goes on a space journey in a superfast rocket that travels at 99% of the speed of light. The space traveller stays on his journey for precisely one year, whereupon he returns to Earth on his 31st birthday. On Earth, however, seven years have elapsed, so his twin brother is 37 years old at the time of his arrival. This is due to the fact that time is stretched by factor 7 at approx. 99% of the speed of light, which means that in the space travellers reference frame, one year is equivalent to seven years on earth. Yet, time appears to have passed normally to both brothers, i.e. both still need five minutes to shave each morning in their respective reference frame. As it can be seen from the above function, the effect of time dilation is negligible for common speeds, such as that of a car or even a jet plane, but it increases dramatically when one gets close to the speed of light. Very close to c, time virtually stands still for the outside observer. Time expands, space contracts Interestingly, while time expands from the perspective of the stationary observer, space contracts from the perspective of the moving observer. This phenomenon is known as Lorentz contraction, which is exactly the reciprocal of the above time dilation formula: l=l*sqr(1-v ²/c ²). Thus the space traveller passing by Earth at a speed of 0.99c would see its shape as an ellipsis with the axis parallel to his flight direction contracted to a seventh of its original diameter. That is of course, if he sees it at all, given the enormous speed. Therefore, space travel is shortened with the velocity of the traveller. A journey to the 4.3 light-years distant Alpha Centauri C, the closest star to our Sun, would take only 7.4 months in a space ship moving at 0.99c. The effect of time dilation has been experimentally confirmed thanks to very precise caesium clocks that can measure extremely small periods of time. Unfortunately, time dilation is completely outside of human experience, because we have not yet devised a way of travelling at speeds where relativistic effects become noticeable. Even if you spent your whole life in a jet plane that moves at supersonic speed, you would barely win a second over your contemporaries on the ground. And, not even todays astronauts can perceive the Lorentz contraction. Imagine you are a cosmonaut on board of space station Mir, moving at 7700 meters per second relative to Earth. Looking down upon Europe from space, you would see the entire 270 kilometre east to west extent of Switzerland contracted by a mere 0.08 millimetres. Can we travel at the speed of light? The hope that one day mankind will be able to travel at near-to-speed-of-light velocities seems farfetched, because of the incredible amounts of energy needed to accelerate a spacecraft to these speeds. The forces are likely to destroy any vehicle before it comes even close to the required speed. In addition, the navigational problems of near-to-speed-of-light travel pose another tremendous difficulty. Therefore, when people say they have to hurry in order to win time, they probably dont mean it in a relativistic way. Kant: Space and time are properties of thought The German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), maintained that time and space are a priori particulars, which is to say they are properties of perception and thought imposed on the human mind by nature. This subtle position allowed Kant to straddle the well-known differences about the reality of space and time that existed between Newton and Leibniz. Newton held that space and time have an absolute reality, in the sense of being quantifiable objects. Leibniz held against this that space and time werent really things, such as cup and a table, and that space and time have a different quality of being. Kants position agrees with Newton in the sense that space and time are absolute and real objects of perception, hence, science can make valid propositions about them. At the same time, he agrees with Leibniz by saying that time and space are not things in themselves, which means they are fundamentally different from cups and tables. Of course, this view of space and time also introduc es new problems. It divides the world into a phenomenal (inner) reality sphere and an noumenal (outer) reality sphere. From this academic separation arise many contradictions in epistemology. We will, however, not deal with this particular problem at this point. Life in a spacetime cubicle From Relativity we learn that time and space is seemingly independent of human experience, as the example of time dilation suggests. Since our own perception of time and space is bound to a single reference frame, time appears to be constant and absolute to us. Physics teaches us that this is an illusion and that our perception deceived us within living memory. Thanks to Einstein, we are now able to draw relativistic spacetime diagrams, compute gravitational fields, and predict trajectories through the four-dimensional spacetime continuum. Still, we are hardly able to visualise this spacetime continuum, or deal with it in practical terms, because human consciousness is bound to the human body, which is in turn bound to a single reference frame. We live within the confinements of our own spacetime cubicle. Considering that in Relativity, spacetime is independent of human perception, the Kantian understanding of space and time as a priori particulars seems to be obsolete. They are no longer properties of perception, but properties of nature itself. But, there is more trouble looming for Kant. Relativity stretches the distincti

Feminist Bashing of Tennessee Williams and A Streetcar Named Desire :: Feminism Feminist Women Criticism

A Streetcar Named Desire and the Gay Roots of Feminist Straight Bashing  Ã‚     Ã‚   Tennessee William's A Streetcar Named Desire is widely considered the highest achievement of 20th Century American theatre. Stanley Kowalski is a symbol of the heterosexual male. Significantly this male icon is portrayed as a rapist. In 1947, Tennessee Williams (through Blanche DuBois) also describes Stanley as "sub human," a term that would inspire outrage if it had been used against Jews, blacks, women or gays. The play is a good example of how Williams, a homosexual, contributed to the "modern malaise" by undermining the legitimacy of heterosexual males, females and the family. Williams' complex motives may explain the motivation of feminists today. Homosexuals have suffered persecution. This doesn't automatically elevate them morally nor immunize them from political criticism. Personally, I believe in live-and-let-live. That's why I wasn't prepared to discover that homosexuals, in particular, lesbian feminists, are not so tolerant of heterosexuals like myself. They are conducting a vicious attack on heterosexual institutions that society no longer can afford to ignore. Currently the attack comes from the feminist movement, which is led by lesbians. In "The New Victorians"(1996), Rene Denfeld documents how feminists are no longer concerned with equal opportunity, but are dedicated to transforming heterosexual society. Heterosexuality is regarded as the root of all oppression and homosexuality is seen as the remedy. "For many of today's feminists, lesbianism is far more than a sexual orientation, or even a preference. It is, as students in many colleges learn, an ideological, political and philosophical means of liberation of all women from heterosexual tyranny†¦" In their ruthless quest for power, feminists behave like Marxist zealots, quietly infiltrating the education and legal systems, government bureaucracy and media. They institute quotas that give women preference in education and employment regardless of merit, regardless that women may already be over represented. They display a cult-like, totalitarian attitude to dissent, refusing to debate, suppressing free speech and slandering people who hold opposing views. It may seem absurd that gays and lesbians who represent about four per cent of the population should attempt to transform society. Of these only a minority is promoting these goals. But these activists have used specious guilt tactics to capture the moral high ground. With the complicity of the media and politicians, they wield power way out of proportion to their numbers.

Life Goals in Charles Dickens Great Expectations :: Great Expectations Essays

Life Goals in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations "He came closer to my tombstone, took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold me, so that his eyes looked powerfully into mine, and mine looked most helplessly up into his" (3). These lines describe the entrance of the character, Provis, into the life of a young man who goes by the name of Pip. Pip is the protagonist in Great Expectations, the classic novel by Charles Dickens. Written in 1861, Great Expectations tells the life story of Pip, a young man who is born into the working class of England and makes his rise in society as the years progress. During his childhood years, Pip is endowed to his sister, who "brings him up by hand" (5), meaning she uses brute force when in comes to punishment, and punishment is frequent even when not required. This is also the time in his life when Pip meets the convict, Provis, out on the marshes near the church. Provis plays a key role in Pip's rise in society, even though Pip doesn't know it. Throughout the novel, the convict is subconsciously if not consciously on Pip's mind. The reader may not notice this fact at first, but it becomes evident as the novel progresses. Around the end of the novel, Pip finally learns who is the cause for his sudden wealth, and he realizes that his reasons for being ashamed of his family are shallow, so he sets things right. Great Expectations is the goals that Pip has about his life. During his childhood, Pip becomes the playmate to Estella, the adopted daughter of the wealthy Miss Havisham. Immediately, he falls in love with her, but she feels that she is socially above him and therefore he is not worthy of her. Upon first meeting Pip, Estella, upon hearing that she is to play cards with him, immediately remarks, "With this boy! Why, he is a common labouring-boy!" (55). Estella scorns Pip from the first day she meets him. Pip wants to be better for Estella and becomes ashamed of his family, because they are common townspeople. Estella is the reason for Pip's first expectation of becoming part of the upperclass. This aim is fulfilled when Pip learns that he has "come into a handsome property" (129) and he is to "be brought up as gentleman- in a word, as a young fellow of great expectations" (129).

The Impact of the Civil War on Womens Rights Essay -- Womens Rights

â€Å"I do not wish them [women] to have power over men; but over themselves.† ― Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman After four years of seemingly endless battle between a divided nation, more than 600,000 people were killed. These lives, however, were not given in vain. Had it not been for the American Civil War, abolition may not have been carried out. The nation might have remained divided. Women might have remained confined to their roles as the "homemakers." Although the Civil War was fought in hopes of preserving the nation and ridding it of slavery, another war raged on within the depths of this war--the women's war. Serving as nurses both in the hospital and on the battlefields, women came to know a whole different world; a world outside of the home. When the last gun shot was fired, women were expected to return to their roles as the housewives. Some, however, had tasted the sweetness of being able to hold positions equal to that of their male counterparts and had become addicted. In this way, the American Civil War served as a significant turning point for the transformation of societal v iews concerning working women-particularly those in the field of nursing. Prior to the Civil War, it was believed that a woman's place was in the home. Societal views held that women were to be the homemakers, while the occupations in the outside world were to be left to the men. "It was an age when women were preferred as angels rather than amazons, homemakers rather than careerists" (Donald & Randall 19). A woman's legal status was dependent on that of her father or husband, depending on whether she was married or not. As a result, a woman could not make any legal appearances in court or sign any legal papers... ...ar and Reconstruction. D.C. Health and Company: Boston,1965. McPherson, James M. Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction, Second Edition. Princeton University: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992. Moore, Frank. Women of the War: Their Heroism and Self-Sacrifice. Hartford, Connecticut: S.S. Scranton & Co., 1866. "Negro Emancipation," Harper's Weekly: Journal of Civilization, January 10, 1863, p. 18. "The Bombardment of Fort Sumter," Harper's Weekly: Journal of Civilization, April 27, 1861, p. 1. Thompson, William F. Image of War: The Pictorial Reporting of the American Civil War. Louisiana State University Press: Baton Rouge and London, 1960. Volo, Dorothy Denneen and Volo, James M. Daily Life in Civil War America. Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut and London,1998. Wright, Mike. What They Didn't Teach You About the Civil War. Presido Press, 1996.

Marvelous Hstory Makings for Women from 1865 Essay

Women have sought out equality and its benefits for the longest of time. Their desire to own themselves and control the world’s perspective of women has been motivation throughout decades. Looking back as far as 1865, Women have always worked hard to care for the family even while they stood behind the man. Women used their skills to manage the home by bringing income in through making and selling clothing. There was a time when it was unacceptable for a woman’s shoulders to be bare in public, and unheard of to be seen with their belly visible. Sex without marriage was obscene as was the option of having sex with preventive methods. And they eventually won the battle of who can and cannot vote. Women struggled against men for and objective females for the right to enlist in the military. Abortion was brought to existence to protect women from birthing unwillingly. The world experienced several acts and rights to ensure women gained equality. Women tackled the world for women related changes drastically since 1865 and do not plan to back down. This paper defines that women have fought for equality in employment, fashion, voting, military choice, and even birth options; they achieved such rights through feminist acts like the women’s liberation movement and they will forever expect rightful equality. â€Å"Women worked hard to create income for their family, such as making clothes from scratch, turning fresh raw game into meals, cleaning homes and baking† (Bowles, M. 2011). Women did just about everything that a man did on top of their own work; they had to be prepared for the unexpected. Women would have to do other things like, tending to the farm animals, and handling the crops. Where democratic freedom is concerned, women fell short along with African Americans for the longest of time. 1842-1932, Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, an orator of the American Civil War period spoke out on women’s rights. She gave her first serious speech in 1860, before the Civil War began, addressing the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. In 1861, she spoke on the ‘Rights and Wrongs of Women’. She spoke for organizations that focused on adult education programs (Woloch, N. (2013). Education could free women. Women searched for equality in the work place; for real payroll opportunities that were only granted to males. â€Å"There were far less than few professions offered to women if they sought a career for themselves. Other than a teacher, a nurse, or a social worker, women were not given the chance at other forms of employment† (Bowles, M. 2011). Females were given a short break when war began, and were allowed secretary, cook and nurse positions. The women’s rights movement was kicked off in year 1848. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, an American leader in the women’s right movement put together the Declaration of Rights for women. The declaration gained 68 women signatures as well as 32 men signatures. Not only was this declaration of rights after the end of women’s struggle for work equality, but also for educational strengthening, and desired voting rights. â€Å"Stanton, and another strong willed women like Susan B. Anthony, fought through the late 19th century to be victorious, unfortunately as their passing came in 1902 and 1906 they still were not welcome to vote† (Bowles, M. 2011). Women accessed small freedoms along their journey to the great equality. Women strived for dramatic change in their lives. While rights of voting, necessary education and military options were in the works women started making changes that did not require the governments time. Women spiced up their attire. The 19th-century dress reform was a social protest. Dress reformers set their bodies free from the physical and ideological constraints of society’s acceptance of fashion. The reform became a stand for equality. The reform short dress embodied the movement’s ideas by redefining femininity and influence for women. â€Å"In the 19th century America industrialization revolutionized life, pushing cultural, social, political, and even educational change. Opportunities for women extended and contracted simultaneously. Such tremendous social upheaval in such a short time, fifty years created significant tension in the United States† (Torrens, K. M. 1999). Women were on fire. Women cut their hair, began sporting the bob, and experimented with makeup. With the exception of actresses very few women wore lip stick or even powder on their face. To see women decorating their faces for reasons other than entertainment was absurd, yet alluring and exciting. Women were making their mark in America. â€Å"Short skirts, unbuckled boots, and heavy makeup made up the ‘flapper’. Daring teenage girls explored this look and older generations were stunned by the outrageous fashions and attitudes† (Bliven, B. 1925, Sept. 9). â€Å"Women’s skirt lengths crept up through the years; presently we are not awe struck to see a skirt not worthy of being called a skirt, but in 1915 most considered a skirt that ended below the knee to be simply scandalous† (Bowles, M. 2011). In the 1920’s flappers were considered a new breed of young Western women who wore the above mentioned short skirts, bobbed hairstyles, and they also listened to jazz. They would flaunt their rebellious ways in society. Flappers wore excessive makeup, drank, smoked and they were guilty of treating sex more casually than the bond between married people. Not all women were as bold and could reveal as much skin as the flapper girls. â€Å"Many tried to gracefully mix the old with the new in order to protect themselves as well as fit in with the new† (Torrens, K. M. 1999). Women took control of appearance. It took years for women of generations, races, cultures etc†¦ to accept the option to dress how they wish, and even presently there are still cultures that resist the urge to break free and dominate their attire, but for American women fashion is freedom. Fashion is a historical point made that women will be equal, women will stand as tall as men and be seen, heard and respected as man, not just thought of as â€Å"from the rib, which God has taken from man, made him a woman, and gave her to the man† (Robert A. Couric, 2003). I, as a woman, vote yes to that. Voting has been a desire of women for quite a stretch of time. Act after failed act women fought passionately for equality in voting. What sense does it make that a male can choose who runs his country and a female cannot have a say? When the Declaration of Independence was done in 1776, it stated that all men were created equal, but said nothing of women’s rights. â€Å"Several women’s rights leaders found this to be unacceptable and, along with other proud women, Stanton created the term ‘Womanisfesto,’ which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence† (Roberts, 2005). Passed by Congress June 4, 1919, and approved on August 18, 1920, the 19th amendment promised all American women the right to vote. Victory took decades to achieve. Marches, speeches, letters of defiance, and civil disobedience all lead to the radical change of the Constitution. Before that in 1869 the National Woman Suffrage Association was begun, with the goal of securing an amendment to the Federal Constitution for woman suffrage (Woman suffrage). After years with much fight, failure and motivation to enforce women’s rights to vote, the 19th amendment was finally accomplished. The Presidential election of November, 1920, was the first official opportunity for all American women to utilize their right to vote (Woman suffrage). War caused huge vacancies, resulting in great opportunity for women because they were discriminated against in job choice. There was a high demand for assistance in the field, therefore the government called women in to volunteer for service, and why not take that shot at future security. Unfortunately they were not given military privileges or benefits. Women were granted the chance to also serve the military in secretarial jobs and some women drove trucks. Women gained employment during the war, but unfortunately lost them once men returned from Europe. â€Å"The participation of women in the war was serious, not only for the nation, but for their own cause† (Bowles, M. 2011). Women started off serving in the military as contracted or volunteered nurses, cooks and they even disguised themselves as soldiers. During the American Revolution Deborah Samson joined in the Continental Army as Robert Shurtliff, she served as a soldier for almost one whole year, but that opportunity for females was stripped from them when the armed forces decided they were going to ensure that only the healthiest men were in the service, so they started thorough physical examinations (history and collections). The 1960s and 1970s saw an important legislation enacted to address sex discrimination in employment and education. Phyllis Schlafly, a woman opposing the equal rights amendment accused that the amendment would create a â€Å"unisex society† while weakening the family, harming the vision of the homemaker, legalizing homosexuality, and exposing girls to the military draft† (Steinem, G. 1970). Well, women on board with the equal rights amendment were all for it, and would not stop aiming for success even if some of the shared sex were against it. In 1948 Congress passed the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act allowing women status in the military, as well as veteran’s benefits. During the late 1940’s females were allowed permanency as members of the armed forces. They were given all the power men have in military; presently in 2013, the United States Armed Forces flipped a 1994 rule that bans women from serving in certain combat positions, totally cleared the way for women to hold positions in front line units and powerful commando teams. Rights of work choice were on the rise for women. Women were frustrated with their place in society and their progress in their fight to obtain employment and achieve equal rights. In 1960 the amount of women workers doubled in 1940, and just about 40 percent of all females over the age sixteen had employment. The female employee rate increased four times quicker than the rate of men. Wives at work doubled in percentage in between 1940 and 1960† (Purnell, S. E. 1976). The Women’s Liberation Movement was a feminist political movement which developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Year 1961 oral contraceptives or birth control was accessible for women and it was the first step of the women’s liberation movement. In 1961, President Kennedy’s commission to examine the issues involving women discovered that discriminatory actions were indeed being taken against women. In 1963, the Equal Rights Act was in place. It ensured that discrimination between sexes concerning the wages in the work establishment was against the law. In 1964 President Johnson finalized the Civil Rights Act. Signed papers did not mean that realistically women were treated fairly, so a group of women known as NOW, or National Organization for Women took action to bring women’s participation in society up to par, as equal partners to men. The liberation movement made huge steps for women to ensure equality and opened doors for other possibilities for women. The choice to birth a child or not became a concern for women. Several anti-abortion laws had been around since at least 1900. Abortion was prohibited in 30 states and legal only under certain scenarios that could include rape-pregnancies, or incest in the other 20 states. 1925 Margaret Sanger presented the world with her speech, The Children’s Era; the speech addressed the results of overpopulation and a lack of birth control options. Her words: â€Å"Before you can cultivate a garden, you must know something about gardening. You have got to give your seeds a proper soil in which to grow†¦ † (Margaret Sanger, 1925). There is a difference in relation to giving birth unwilling and doing so unprepared. Just about two years after this successful speech, Ms. Sanger spoke at the first World Population Conference in Geneva. Understanding that women would be blamed for their conditions and the repeated pregnancies they faced, Sanger reached out to her audiences in hopes they would help fund her birth control ideas and laws. She used the stories of children to bond her listeners and force support for the services for mothers. She also goes in to great detail about diseases, and a couple other issues concerning life without birth control. It is no secret that there are situations where girls are drugged or raped and result in unwanted or unsafe pregnancies. Where are their escapes? In 1973 the Supreme Court made the decision Roe v. Wade. It invalidated all of the above mentioned laws, and reset guidelines for the abortion. That granted women the right to abort life if they believed it necessary. I, as a young woman and mother, do not shout for joy in this particular right, but I can certainly appreciate the option if ever the horrifying requirement presented itself. Birth control has also become a growing industry that allows women so many different methods of contraception. It is a great thing too, because the open options allow less unaccepted abortions. Women have succeeded in much more than the allowance to choose birth; they have birthed great opportunities for future women. Decades of females fighting for the chance at equality, none of it went in vain for women have gracefully achieved the long awaited desires. Employment is now option and right to women. Women are no longer viewed as the weaker sex and entitled only to house wife, farm girl, or clothing makers. Women dramatically transformed their appearance, giving life to their look. They can realistically and openly express themselves; they have opened a world of opportunity for present and future generations. Military branched out and welcomed women with open arms after quite the fuss, but women are proud Americans as well and have done their fair share in bringing wars to end. The ballot boxes are no longer limited to the male species only, women successfully conquered that battle and have continued to show up to every voting occasion. Women even won the war of being able to choose whether or not to have child. Life is not fair, but women have gained rights to fairness in all that they do in society. There still may be corners of the world with different perspectives on how women rank in society, but watch out for the modern day Elizabeth Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, because there will always be strong women ready to right the wrongs of inequality.